Pong Yaengfarmers typically planted their crops (mainly cut flowers, tomatoes, and bellpeppers) in greenhouses. Farmers from Inthakhin used openfields to plant their crops (rice, vegetables, legumes, and fruits). However, farmersfrom Pong Yaeng were exposed more to dithiocarbamate fungicides such as mancozeb,maneb, and zineb compared to farmers from Inthakhin. Generally, farmers fromboth locations were exposed similarly to OP and PYR insecticides. Concentrations of individual DAPs presented in units of μg/gcreatinine while concentrations of molar summed metabolites (ΣDMAP,ΣDEAP, and ΣDAP) were presented in units of nmol/gcreatinine;
Eligible studies included in the meta-analysis that reported the effects of organophosphate pesticides on semen quality and male sex hormones. Hence, the aim of this study was to analyze the association between OP pesticides exposure, sperm quality and testosterone levels through a systematic review and meta-analysis. The analysis of the sperm multiple anomaly index only included two studies, totaling 106 subjects exposed to OP pesticides and 80 unexposed controls. In another cross-sectional study among Peruvian pesticide sprayers, observed a significantly lower ejaculate volume, sperm motility, and normal morphology as well as serum LH and testosterone levels among OP-exposed workers when compared with the control. A substantial body of evidence has demonstrated that organophosphate (OP) pesticides exert adverse effects on male reproductive hormones and sperm quality. In addition, OP pesticides exposure did not significantly affect serum concentrations of FSH, LH, and testosterone in subjects who were exposed to OP pesticides compared to their unexposed counterparts. Researchers compiled, rated and reviewed the results of 25 studies of certain pesticides and male fertility and found that men who had been exposed to certain classes of pesticides had significantly lower sperm concentrations.
Estrus is the period of greatest female sexual responsiveness usually coinciding with ovulation. As the majority of these studies are experimental animal studies, one should keep in mind that the estrus cycle in animals only partly corresponds with the ovarian cycle in humans, but that the phases (proestrus, estrus, metestrus, and diestrus) are different. In many studies addressing these disturbances, however, the mechanisms are not specified. Finally, it is postulated that any environmental compound mimicking or antagonizing steroid hormone action could presumably alter the glycosylation of LH and FSH, thereby reducing their biological activity . For example, it has been demonstrated that low-dose exposure to o,p-DDT and methoxychlor can result in diminished hypothalamic and pituitary function in rodents 88,89., steroidhormones (e.g. testosterone, estradiol), and the testicular hormone inhibinb8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15 inmen. Examples of these pesticides are 2,4-D, chlorpyrifos, prothiofos, fenthion,permethrin, cypermethrin, and cyfluthrin7. Current-use pesticides in Thailand are considered,"non-persistent," as they break down easily in the environment and donot tend to bioaccumulate in the human body6.}
The exposure frequency is unpredictable, ranging from a fewdays to a few weeks, depending on crop type and geographical location4,5. Thailand is a developing country that relies heavily on pesticide use inagriculture to sustain its economy. Urine was analyzedfor levels of specific- and non-specific metabolites of organophosphates (OPs),pyrethroids, select herbicides, and fungicides. All authors contributed substantially to the conception of the outline of the review, gave advise during the literature study, and critically revised subsequent versions of the manuscript. These often provide the first indications of potential reproductive effects of a chemical, but it is difficult to extrapolate the effects found in laboratory animals to effects that might be expected in women. A disadvantage of the studies described is that they were mostly laboratory animal and cell culture studies. A slightly increased risk for central nervous system defects was also observed.
Lindane, atrazine, and simazine also cause a decrease in circulating estradiol levels in rats 94,95. Treatment of rats with the insecticide heptachlor suppressed estradiol concentrations in blood and reduced the production of estradiol by ovarian cells of treated rats 92,93. This balance can be disturbed by changing levels of estrogen or progesterone.

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